Multiculturalism in Social Policy

Multiculturalism in Social Policy Introduction The 1948 British Nationality Act, granted favorable immigration rights to Citizens of Commonwealth countries (Giddens, 4th ed. 2001:264). This, along with offers of job opportunities due to a labour shortage in post-war Britain meant that the country experienced immigration on an unprecedented scale. In the beginning men came leaving their families behind. By the late 1960s and early seventies women and children were coming to join them. The newcomers settled in London, in the Midlands and the North and in the seaport towns of Liverpool and Cardiff. They were Hindus, Sikhs, Muslims and Buddhists as well as Christians estimates of the numbers in religious groups are problematic. This turned the UK into an ethnically and religiously diverse community. Braham, Rattansi and Skellington (1992) contend that between 1950 and 1955 the numbers of West Indian, Indian and Pakistani immigrants became a matter of considerable debate within the cabinet and various measures to control the influx to the UK were considered. This mixed community is still growing in spite of the fact that government immigration policy makes it increasingly difficult for many people to enter and settle in this country. This resulted in changes to the ‘British way of life’ and the UK became known as a multicultural community. However, more recently the term multiculturalism is becoming a contested concept both in sociological discourse and in recent policy making. Current Government policy initiatives, which are largely driven by past mistakes, is to have some idea of the makeup of different ethnic communities in order to establish whether these might provide some stability for incoming asylum seekers/refugees (Spencer, 2001). It is only in the last 10-15 years that the Government has collected data that relates specifically to diverse ethnic groups e.g. the 1991 and 2001 census datum. Present Government, faced with an influx of asylum seekers, is also confronted with the dilemma of fears for national identity that dates back to the mass immigration of the 1960s (Stalker, 2002). This paper will explain and discuss the concept of multiculturalism and the contested nature of the term as it relates to social policy and discourses. Multiculturalism†¦is a theory (albeit vague) about the foundations of a culture rather than a practice which subsumes cultural ideas (Harrison, 1984:1).[1] The Roots of Multiculturalism The 1914 and 1948 Nationality Acts did not impose any restrictions on immigration to Britain from those migrating from Commonwealth countries or those countries that had been a part of the British Empire. Immigration remained fairly low, however until after 1948. In 1953 the total number of immigrants to Britain was 2000 and by the end of the first half of 1962 the number had risen to 94,500 (Layton-Henry, 1992:13).Fifty years ago, when the UK first felt the effects of mass immigration there was a growing recognition that this would require legal, policy, and political changes. At the same time Government was largely concerned with incoming groups being assimilated or integrated into the host community. Thus, Massey (1991) has argued that in many ways the immediate post-war approach to immigration was very much one of laissez-faire. †¦.the assumption was that everyone was equal before the law, and therefore no special policies were necessary (Massey, 1991:9). It has since come to be recognised by both diverse ethnic groups, and by the Government that this operated as a form of cultural imperialism that was bound to fail because of its tendency to view any culture, other than that of the white middle classes, as an inferior cultural form which evoked racism and alienation among and between groups (Parker-Jenkins et al 2005). By the mid-50s it was recognised that the idea that immigrants would just be absorbed into, and subsumed by, the host culture was a mistake. Cashmore (1989) has argued that there was an increased racial tension and by the closing years of the 1950s immigrants were subjected to unprovoked racist attacks. This resulted in the notion that immigration and race relations were politically controversial issues and there was a growing campaign to introduce immigration controls. Skellington and Morris (1992) have argued that the term immigrant is often used to refer to people of a different colour, when in truth the vast majori ty of migration is found in white groups hailing from Europe, Canada and Ireland etc. In 1962 the Government introduced the Commonwealth Immigrants Act whereby members of the Commonwealth were denied entry to the UK unless they were able to fulfil certain criteria (Cashmore, 1989). If they fulfilled these criteria they were issued with vouchers that said they could enter if they had work to go to, if they were qualified in an area e.g. medicine that had a shortage in the UK and some vouchers were issued on the basis of the fact that the person had served in the armed forces during the war. Government tried to justify the Act and its requisite on the grounds that the increasing number of immigrants was contributing to the economic problems that Britain was facing at that time (Cashmore, 1989). The incoming Labour Government added further restrictions to the Act and in 1968 The Commonwealth Immigrants Act restricted entry to those who held British passports and they were subject to immigration controls unless they had a parent or grandparent who was a UK citizen or who had been born in the UK. Pilkington (1984) maintains that the act was discriminatory because it served to exclude coloured Kenyans unless they were given a voucher but allowed the entry of white Kenyans to Britain. Since that time there has been an increased tightening of immigration laws and procedures and an increasing sense of racial discrimination. Home Office figures for 1992 show that one out of every 63 Jamaicans and one out of every 82 Bangladeshis were refused entry compared one in 3000 Americans and one 4300 Swedes (Skellington, et al1996). The term multiculturalism is generally thought to have arisen in Britain in a speech by the then Home Secretary, Roy Jenkins in 1966. Multiculturalism is the notion that each culture has its own specific identifiable features and how the uniqueness of them relate to each other and to the host community (Parker-Jenkins et al, 2005).. There is however, a feeling that this form of multiculturalism is actually a threat to national identity while at the same time leading to a rich cultural exchange in terms of thought and lifestyle. While this term is current in the UK there are often instances where local politics can serve to exclude minority cultures while promoting the values of the dominant white culture.[2] Multiculturalism is also a term (and certainly as expressed by Roy Jenkins) which describes aspects of social policy. Multiculturalism in this sense is to be distinguished from the American view of the melting pot where differences are not subject to specific policy targeting but (in a laissez-faire manner) immigrant groups are more or less left to get on with things. Multiculturalism is used in a number of ways which can serve either to celebrate difference or to act as a cover for what, in any real terms, is another form of enforced assimilation. It also needs to be recognised that diverse ethnic groups now consist of large numbers of people who have been born in Britain (Modood et al, 1997). Multiculturalism and Policy Making Multiculturalism has sparked much debate during recent years. While it was largely ignored under Margaret Thatcher’s Government the success of New Labour has meant that the term has become a common currency in political debate and in policy making.[3] Policy making is important because it can determine the amount of representation (or lack of it) that diverse ethnicities receive in the press and on television, it also determines the content of education, forms of dress (particularly in schools but also with regards to policy on safety regulations e.g. the refusal of Sikhs to remove their turbans in order to wear a motor cycle helmet) and support for minority festivals and religious holidays. In the last two or three years however, the UK Government has focussed less on multicultural policy making and more on issues of inclusion and cohesion. In 1997 the ODPM was given responsibility for a social exclusion unit which aims to undertake research into a number of different areas. Social inclusion and cohesion are not just used in relation to diverse ethnic groups but are the basis for policy making in a number of other areas such as mental health, early years education and homelessness. Thus Government has a wealth of policy initiatives and this has led to a growth in the number of NGOs commissioning research on inclusion in a number of different areas. Issues of inclusion cover a host of areas and can range from the numbers of ethnic minorities using childcare facilities, to those undertaking further education of some kind to increase their employment prospects. Policy making aimed at reducing inequalities in both the labour and the housing market, and ongoing policy initiatives to combat racism are hampered by a dwindling job market and successive cuts in housing budgets. Braham et al (1992) argue that in order to be successful anti-racist strategies need to be multi-faceted and aimed at subjective, institutional, and structural racism. Past policies have been badly focussed and piecemeal because there is no clear consensus in Britain what equal opportunity and multiculturalism mean either in ideological or practical terms (Solomos and Back, 1996). Reports produced by the social exclusion unit may be aimed at reducing marginalization but often result in the labeling of minority groups, and specifically diverse minority ethnic groups, as a drain on the resources of society. Policies that target specific areas such as getting the population back into full employment tend to leave minority ethnic groups as particularly vulnerable to this type of labeling. According to a Policy Studies Institute (1982)[4] report found that in the majority of diverse ethnic communities rates of unemployment were twice as high among these groups as they were in the dominant host group. However, research undertaken by Modood et al (1997) reflects the fact that while there is a continuing disparity in terms of wages, exclusionary modes of hiring and higher unemployment rates, certain ethnic groups experience greater success in the labour market than do others. Iganski and Payne (1999) on the other hand maintain that while the occupational structure in Britain is experiencing rapid change the gains made by some ethnic groups should not be understood in terms of the end of disadvantage in the labour market. They also contend that these changes have occurred because the forces of industrial restructuring are greater than the forces of ethnic/racial discrimination and disadvantage. Housing policies also tend to discriminate against asylum seekers/refugees and other diverse ethnic groups. Struggles over access to such resources can result in what Weber (1976) has termed ‘group closure’. Access to housing resources varies between diverse ethnic groups, where some, particularly those of Indian origin, have rising levels of home ownership while other groups remain in sub-standard and hard to let accommodation (Ratcliffe, 1999). Clearly there are problems in the classification of diverse ethnic groups and in present policy making, which, instead of greater inclusion sometimes tends to further exclude such groups. Ballard’s (1990) research demonstrates that there needs to be a clear understanding and examination of cultural differences and structural forces before applying encompassing terms to diverse ethnic groupings. Conclusion There tends to be a general agreement among social theorists that existing classifications of the diverse groupings that go to make up the modern UK context are problematic and that this has implications for policy making. Not all sociologists find the term multiculturalism as a desirable one. For Solomos et al (1982) multiculturalism is part of a new racism that is based on the view that diverse ethnic groups are not compatible, thus Enoch Powell’s pronouncement that rivers of blood would flow because of the difficulty of mixing different cultural groups. Rattansi (1994) has argued that with the globalization process clear cut distinctions between groups may be undermined by the formation of new forms of ethnic identities. Solomos et al (1982) argue that minority groups need to struggle in order to gain power in society and to pursue a policy of anti-racism whereby the racism that exists in society and its institutions is exposed as there are some problems that cannot be reso lved through the pursuit of cultural tolerance. 2000 words Bibliography Spencer, S. 2001. UK Migration Policy 2001 London, Institute for Policy Research Stalker, P. (2002) â€Å"Migration Trends and Migration Policy in Europe† International Migration Vol 40 (5) pp 151-179 Banting, K. 2005 â€Å"The multicultural welfare state: international experience and North American narratives† Social Policy and Administration, vol.39, 2005, p.98-115 Braham, P. Rattansi, A. and Skellington, R. eds. 1982 Racism and Antiracism. London, Sage. Goldberg, D.T. 1993 Racist Culture. Oxford, Blackwell. Solomos, J and Back, L. 1996. Racism and Society. London, Macmillan Press. Giddens, A. 2001. (4th ed). Sociology. Cambridge, Polity Press. Layton-Henry, Z. 1992. The Politics of Immigration. Oxford, Blackwell Massey, I. 1991 More than Skin Deep London, Hodder and Stoughton Parker-Jenkins, M, Hartas, D. and Barrie, A. 2005. In Good Faith: Schools, Religion and Public Funding Hampshire, Ashgate Press. Cashmore, E. 1989 United Kingdom? London, Unwin-Hyman Skellington R. and Morris, P. 1992 Race in Britain Today London, Sage Pilkington, A. 1984 Race Relations in Britain Slough, OUP. Modood, T. and Berthood R. 1997 Ethnic Minorities in Britain Diversities and Disadvantage London, PSI ODPM. 2004 Tackling Social Exclusion: Taking Stock and Looking to the Future http://www.socialexclusionunit.gov.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=13 page 17 Braham, P. Rattansi, A. and Skellington, R. eds. 1992 Racism and Antiracism.  London, Sage Ballard, R. 1990 â€Å"Marriage and Kinship† in Clarke, C. Peach, C. and Vertovec, S. eds. South Asians Overseas Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Iganski, P. and Payne G. 1999 â€Å"Socio-economic restructuring and employment: the case of minority ethnic groups† British Journal of Sociology, 50 Weber, M. 1976 The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism London, Allen and Unwin (first published 1904-5). Ratcliffe, P. 1999 â€Å"Housing inequality and race: some critical reflections on the concept of ‘social exclusion† Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22 Solomos, J. Findlay, B. Jones, S and Gilroy, P. 1982 â€Å"The organic crisis of British capitalism and race: the experience of the 70s† in Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies 1982 1 [1] http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Multiculturalism#Descriptive_Multiculturalism [2] http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Multiculturalism#Descriptive_Multiculturalism [3] http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Multiculturalism#Descriptive_Multiculturalism [4] Cited in Giddens, 2001:267

HSM Personal Leadership Plan Essay

Trinity Services, Inc. is where I am currently employed, as an independent living counselor (ILC), in an adult learning program. Trinity Services, Inc. is an established, community based, not for profit, non-sectarian human services organization that provides an array of quality services and supports for people who have developmental disabilities. The mission statement of Trinity Services, Inc. s, â€Å"Trinity strives to be a leader in providing the highest quality, socially responsible and cost effective services and supports to persons with disabilities, so that they might achieve their full potential and have the opportunity to live full and abundant lives. † As an ILC in an adult learning program, I work on teaching and training of life skills. I also provide individualized assistance and coaching with personal care, activities of daily living, transportation, and other areas of need. At Trinity Services, Inc. the preferred and minimum qualifications to gain employment as an ILC are a high school diploma or GED. I truly enjoy my job and find it to be extremely rewarding but I would really love to have the ability to help the clients even more by obtaining a leadership position at Trinity Services, Inc. such as a program coordinator or case manager; two job positions that require a Bachelor’s degree that relates to the human services management field. It is my current job and the people I serve that have inspired me to go back to school and get my degree. Obtaining a leadership position in a human services organization means that I will have the ability to be a better advocate for the clients I assist but along with that comes more responsibility which is why ethics, morals, and, values are so important in the field of human services. As a leader in a human services organization the moral responsibilities I would have include â€Å"upholding the law, fulfilling the legitimate duties of my position, observing relevant codes of ethics and otherwise abiding by generally held moral principles such as honesty and not knowingly doing harm† (Teehankee, 2007, para. 3). Leaders of human services organizations operate in a variety of ways and perform many different roles. For example, these leaders have responsibilities to the clients, community and society, colleagues, and also to their profession and employers (â€Å"National Organization for Human Services†, n. ). The National Organization for Human Services (n. d) website has two sections pertaining to ethical standards for human service professionals. The first section covers standards for human service professionals while the second section covers standards for human service educators. These ethical guidelines were designed so that human service leaders and educators could use it to assist them in making ethical decisions when faced with difficult ethical dilemmas. Practicing ethical leadership is important because it sets a good example for the organization and the community, builds trust, brings credibility and respect to the leader as well as the organization, leads to collaboration, and creates a good climate within the organization (Rabinowitz, 2013). My moral vision as a leader in a human services organization is to carry out Trinity Services, Inc. mission statement, and utilize the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) (2013) code of ethics and the National Organization of Human Services (NOHS) (n. ) ethical standards for human service professionals to the best of my abilities in order to guide me as an ethical human service leader. Although I don’t believe it will always be possible to specifically use these as guidelines since every situation is different and poses different challenges, however I do believe that as long as I have a good understanding of ethics and what ethical leadership means then I will be able to make the most ethical decisions no matter what obstacles I encounter. For me, it would be a dream come true to see each and every person who has developmental disabilities live in a safe environment where they are respected, treated fairly and are free from abuse and neglect. They are human beings who have rights and should be able to make choices, have friends, and participate in the community without experiencing discrimination of any kind. I hope to make my dream become a reality for people who have developmental disabilities and I believe as a leader in a human services organization I will have the tools to make that happen. There are many different ways that leadership can affect the overall performance of a human services organization and I believe it is important to be an ethical leader to improve performance. Placing the well-being of clients above all other issues is a significant moral responsibility of an ethical leader.

Fast-Food Advertising Deceives Americans to Obesity

Fast-Food Advertising Deceives Americans to Obesity With every precious tick of the clock, an American rushes to perform yet another task in a day with a meager 24 hours. With all the activity encompassed within these hours, many aspects of life are neglected. One of these aspects–the most important and vital one, in fact– is self-nourishment. One must eat foods that are healthy as well as conducive to optimal bodily function and survival. In an attempt to adequately nourish themselves, Americans have fallen victim to seductive fast-food advertising that falsely leads them to believe that fast-food is healthy; this is an unconscionable misrepresentation on the part of the advertisers and thus should be punished. It is unconscionable that any company, well-aware of the potential harmful effects of their food, could so egregiously deceive and subsequently profit from the ignorance of the American public. It is the responsibility of every individual to educate themselves about the food they're eating as they are making a conscious decision when purchasing and consuming the fast-food meals. However, one's responsibility to oneself does not relieve the fast-food industry of their obligation to educate or at least, present fairly to the public the products they offer. The responsibility of a company to the society at large is such that they do not harm their customers. Healthy foods are advertised less than 3% of the time; children rarely see a food advertisement for broccoli. Increasingly, fast food conglomerates are using toy tie-ins with major children's motion pictures to try to attract young people. They request more junk food after viewing commercials.

Snake Venom - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 10 Words: 2874 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/09/21 Category Biology Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Intro â€Å"Each year around 1 million people world wide are bitten by snakes, and around 30,000 to 40,000 of the snake bite victims die from the venomous injection of a venomous snake. Of the 2,000 species of snakes, about 400 are venomous. The cobra, coral snake, and rattlesnake are common examples of venomous snakes. † (Snake2). Knowing this information and more can possibly save yours or somebody else’s life when put into a situation when you have been bitten by a snake and can’t identify it, this paper will educate you on what to do in case of a snake bite and how the venom works on the human body. Snake bite- â€Å"the wound made by the fangs of a venomous snake or the teeth of a non-venomous one. † (Snakebite). Snakes only bite to capture prey or protect themselves when they feel threatened. When they feel threatened they give you warnings to tell you that they are about to strike. For example a rattlesnake will shake its rattle, a cobra will raise its hood, and the majority of the snake world will warn you with a loud audible hiss. Ways of Envomation â€Å"The process of introducing venom into a victim is called envenomating. Envenomating by snakes is most often through their bite, but some species, like the spitting cobra, use additional methods such as squirting venom onto the mucous membranes (eyes, nose, and mouth) of prey animals. † (Reptipage 1). There are different types of delivery methods of delivery of venom. First you come to the short fixed fangs of cobras and mambas. These fangs are fixed in the front of the snakes mouth and do not move when envenomating. In exception for the cobras there is the spitting cobra, which shoots out a jet of venom out of the hollow holes in the fangs. The snake usually aims for the eyes, nose, or mouth as mentioned above. Then we come to the vipers, which have swiveling fangs, which swing forward like a hinge while striking. Then there are the rear fanged snake s, which most of them are in the colibrid family. These fascinating snakes have fixed fangs in the back of their mouth, which are actually just enlargened teeth, the strangest of these snakes in the stiletto snake. When the snake goes to strike, the fangs slide out of the side of the mouth and the snake strikes with the side of its mouth. It smacks its head on the victim and the fangs pierce the victim from the side of the mouth. When the snake bites, it chews to get venom flowing. Most of the snakes in this family are mildly venomous and the power of the venom isn’t strong enough to do any real harm. Venom â€Å"Venoms are basically modified digestive juices, with a clear or yellowish tint to it. The components of venom cause the prey’s nervous system to malfunction while others break down muscles and blood vessels. Most venoms cause a multitude of effects that work in concert to paralyze and kill. The snake stores the venom in glands behind each eye that conne ct with enlargened teeth modified for injection. † (Harvey 10). The Action of Venom â€Å"Snake venom is a complex protein substance and its exact composition varies from one species of snake to anther. When a snake bites, it generally injects its venom though or near its fangs into the wound. Snakebite can even occur when the snake has been dead recently, or even by the snakes dismembered head because the snakes nerve reflexes are not extinguished for many hours. † (Snakebite 2). A neurotoxin venom works to disrupt the function of the brain and nervous system. Classically, such snake venom causes paralysis or lack of muscle control, but it can also disrupt the individual signals sent between neurons and muscles. Such venoms can also attack the body’s supply of ATP, a nucleotide that is critical in energy transfer. Researchers once believed that many snake venoms contained digestive enzymes to make it easier to process prey. However, this does not appear to be th e case; snakes with digestive enzymes in their venom don’t digest prey any more quickly. More probably, such snake venom contributes to tissue death by literally eating the tissue away, accomplishing the snakes goal of incapacitating a victim long enough to start eating. Some animals have natural immunities to snake venom and immunities can also be induced through careful applications of processing the venom. This technique is used to make the venom used in snakebite treatments. Because there are around 600 venomous snakes in the world, many nations have venom exchange programs, which ensure that hospitals and treatment centers can provide anti-venom from other facilities in an emergency. (Snakebite 1). Venom Composition â€Å"Snake venom has a great majority of proteins: some have enzymatic activity, some can block nerve or muscle cell receptors, and some have activity in the protein cascades for coagulation, complement fixation, or inflammation. † (Reptipage 1). à ¢â‚¬Å"Most snake venoms contain specific proteins that paralyze the prey so that it no longer moves, interfere with normal blood clotting mechanisms so that the anima goes into shack and then they begin the process of digestion by breaking down the tissues of the prey animal. † (Reptipage 1). Toxicity (LD 50) Toxicity of venoms is usually expressed by LD50: the lowest dose that kills 50% of a group of experimental animals. That dose varies not just between the venoms tested, but also depends on which species of prey animals receive the venom. Generally, the most toxic venom is the one with the lowest LD50. However, some snakes have venoms that are quite specialized for certain types of prey. Few studies have used the natural prey of a snake species, which would involve capturing a number of wild animals. Instead most research has used inbred strains of laboratory animals. Human susceptibility to snake venom is generally estimated from the LD50 for rodents. The next factor i n assessing the danger of a partiticular species of snake is the dose of venom that is actually introduced into the tissues. Some types of snakes have an extremely efficient mechanism of injection venom with a sing strike; others have poor success in doing so. The amount of venom produced by snakes that is available for secretion with a bite also varies between kinds of snakes, and between individuals (usually by size) of any one species† (reptipage 1). Symptoms of venomous snakebites. The symptoms vary not only with the type of venom injected, but also with the amount. A snake may release no venom at all, or it may release as much as 75% of the total amount stored in its venom glands. Often when a snake bites in self-defense, it injects less venom than when it attacks its prey. The physical condition of the victim and the location of the bite also affect the severity of the symptoms. A bite into a muscle is less dangerous than a bite into a blood vessel, for example, because toxins in the blood are quickly circulated through the body. General symptoms of snakebite include localized pain and swelling soon after the bite occurs, followed by nausea, tingling or numbness, weakness, and shortness of breath. If victims do not receive treatment within a few hours, they may suffer convulsions, fall into a coma, and die. Even venoms that damage only tissue can be fatal within several days. † (Snake venom 2). Listed below are different stages of snakebite symptoms: Paralysis â€Å"Some proteins secreted in snake venoms are toxins that affect nerves. (Neurotoxins) and the contractibility of muscle. Most neurotoxins in snake venoms are too large to cross the blood-brain barrier, and so they usually exert their effects on the peripheral nervous system rather than directly on the brain and spinal cord. Many of these neurotoxins cause paralysis by blocking the neuromuscular junction. In fact, biologists first learned some of the details of how the neuromu scular junction normally functions by using purified snake venoms in physiology experiments. † (Reptipage 2). Shock â€Å"Many components in snake venom disrupt normal blood flow and normal blood clotting (coagulation). Some common enzymes in snake venoms increase bleeding by preventing the formation of clots, and others by breaking down established clots. Both of these types of enzymes include metalloproteases. Other toxins increase ‘bleeding time’ by inhibiting the aggregation of platelets, the small odd-shaped blood cells that collect at the site of a tear in a blood vessel and form a plug to close it. Profound loss of blood can cause hemorrhagic shock, and disable a prey animal. When many tiny blood clots form in the bloodstream there is a pathological condition known as disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), which also causes shock. Some enzymes in snake venom set of DIC in the bloodstream of their envenomated prey by interfering with the activi ty of serine proteases involved in the regulation of hemostasis. † (Reptipage 2†). Infarction (stoke and heart attack) â€Å"Toxins that set off clotting within the blood vessels of envenomated animals can cause both stroke and heart attacks. Infarction is a medical term that means death to tissues because of a block in their blood supply, and clots within the arteries of the neck and brain, as well as the coronary arteries can deprive the blood supply enough to cause infarctions in these organs. (Reptipage 3). Death!!!! When the circumstances are right, and enough venom is injected, if you do not receive medical attention immediately after the bite, you will DIE! Types of venomous snakes There are two major types of venomous snakes: 1. Vipers and 2. Elapids. Vipers include rattlesnakes, copperhead, and water moccasins. Many vipers strike and release their victims quickly because their fangs can shoot venom instantly into the wound. Elapids include cobras, mambas, and c oral snakes. The fangs of an elapid snake do not deliver venom quickly; therefore, an elapid frequently hangs on to its victim and chews, forcing venom into the bite. In most cases, the wound from an elapid causes little pain at first. But later the breathing organs of the victim become partly paralyzed, and the victim becomes sleepy. Venom characteristics and venom delivery (according to family) The venomous snakes are represented in only four families. There are variations in the methods of envenomation according to family. The families are listed below with information included about each of them. Crotalinae (crotalines) â€Å" Common names of well-known members: Pit vipers, including lanceheads, moccasins, and rattlesnakes. â€Å"Pit viper venom characteristically contains a potent mix of enzymes that produce an emphatic degree of tissue destruction at the site of the bite. As with most venom, there can be both local and systematic effects. However, unless a bite by a pi t viper is â€Å"dry† (meaning no venom injected), there will ordinarily be marked inflammation at the site of the bite and possibly systemic effects. Rattlesnakes range in size from small pigmy rattlesnakes (sistrurus) to large (many species of crotalus, such as the Eastern diamondback, (crotalus adamanteus) most pit vipers are potentially very active and aggressive snakes. The strike can be lightning quick, measured in one study as less than 50ms. † (Reptipage 2). Viperidae (viperids) Common names of well know members: pitless vipers, pit vipers â€Å"Bites by snakes of the family viperidae often induce local break down of muscle and tissues which may result in permanent deformity in the region of the bite (myotoxic phospholipases). Some types of vipers inject venom that travels through the blood stream and breaks down muscle cells systemically, with relatively little reaction at the site of the bite, but enough muscle cells throughout the body release their co ntents into the victim’s bloodstream to cause a condition know as rhabdomyolysis. In rhabdomyolysis (rhabdo=rod, myo=muscle cell, lysis=breaks apart) the large iron containing protein, myoglobin, is released into the circulation (myoglobulinemia). When myoglobin reaches the kidney, the renal system attempts to filter it out of the blood. If the amount of myoglobin is very large, acute renal failure results, and the blood is no longer properly filtered of even normal body wastes by the kidneys. The common names of vipers frequently fail to identify an actual species. For example, the name, rock viper, refers to two entirely different kinds of snakes. † (Reptipage 2). Elapidae (elapids) Common names of well-known members: cobras, kraits, coral snakes, mambas, sea snakes, sea kraits, and Australian elapids â€Å"The venom of elapid snakes is notorious for the potency of its neurotoxins. These snakes have similarities in their venom compared to Vipers. Venomous elapi d snakes greatly range in size, aggressiveness and in habitat. † (Snake bite 2). For example the king cobra (ophiophagus Hannah) is the world’s longest venomous snake, growing up to 5. 5m. (18. 5 ft. ) And the Coral Snake only grows to a maximum of 2 ft. â€Å"The main constituent of king cobra venom is a postsynaptic neurotoxin, and a single bite can deliver up to 400-500 mg. Of venom, about fifteen thousand times the LD50 dose for mice. The world’s most venomous snake is the Australian elapid: the small-scaled snake (oxyuranus micolepidotuscan) delivers up to 100 mg. Of venom with an LD50 dose of 0. 01 mg. kg) 1 giving it up to 500,000 LD50mice doses. Although sea snakes have some of the world’s most potent venom, the numbers of human fatalities from snakebites is apparently limited by their marine environment and behavior. For prey animals and in cases of defensive behavior towards humans, â€Å"neuromuscular paralysis usually occurs with elapid (c obra, krait, and mamba) envenomation†, however, many elapid snakes have venoms that also include toxins that cause bleeding. For example the venom of all contain metalloproteinases that interfere with platelet aggregation. Besides neurotoxins and metalloproteinsases, there are additional types of bioactive proteins and polypeptides that are common in elapid venom. A second group of toxins are cell membrane poisons that act in a general fashion, but their chief effect is on the heart, producing arrhythmias and impaired contractility. The third group of toxins contains enzymes that break down protein and connective tissue. These necrosis producing toxins are typical of the venom from the spitting cobras (naja spp. ) of Africa, china and Sumatra† (Reptipage 2). Colubridea (colubrids) Common well known members: boomslang This family of snakes contains about 2/3 of all living species of snakes. A minority has somewhat enlargened-grooved teeth at the back of the upper jaw f or delivering venom under low pressure. This unsophisticated system for venom delivery makes it more difficult for scientists to collect colubrid venom for chemical studies than the venom from vipers and most elapids, which inject venom through front fangs under higher pressure. Often, colubrid venoms were collected only in relatively small quantities and with impurities from other mouth contents from the snake. As more recent collection methods have been devised that overcome some of these problems, researchers have discovered that earlier assumptions about the venom contents were sometimes mistaken. For example, phospholipase A2 (PLA2), which had been thought to be lacking in venoms in this family has now been detected in at least two species. Some venoms show high toxiticity toward mice, and others are toxic to birds and/or frogs only. Because many colubrids feed on non-mammalian prey, lethal toxicity toward mice is probably only relevant as a measure of risk posed to humans. At least five species (dispholidus typus, thelotormis capensis, rhabdophis tigrinus, philodryas olfersii, and tachymenis peruviana) have caused human fatalities. † (Snakebite 3). Atractaspididae Common names: Mole vipers, stiletto snakes, burrowing asps. â€Å"The Atractaspididae are a family of snakes found in Africa and the Middle East. Currently, 12 genera are recognized. No full experiments have been conducted on this specific species of snakes, but it is understood that the venom of the group is extremely virulent. † (Wikipedia) â€Å"This family includes many genera formerly classed in other families, on the basis of fang type. It includes fangless (aglyphous), rear-fanged (opisthoglyphous), fixed-fanged (proteroglyphous), and viper-like (solenoglyphous) species. Molecular and physiological data linking this family to others is ambiguous and often contradictory, which means the taxonomy of this family is highly contentious. The nominate family, Atractaspidi dae has itself been moved to and from other taxa, reinforcing the ambiguity of this family. † (Wikipedia 8). Treatment If a snakebites you, call an ambulance and if possible, identify the type of snake that made the bite. Position your self or the victim so that they are comfortable. Keep calm and try to get your heart beating fast because it only spreads the venom more quickly. Tie a band above the bite. Make sure that the band fits snug with the skin, but loose enough that a finger can be easily placed under it. Do not loosen the band until medical assistance arrives. The victim can drink water unless nausea develops. Do not give the victim aspirin, or any drug containing aspirin. Also do not give the victim any alcoholic drink, or any other form of alcohol. Do not attempt to administer anti-venom by your self or to cut the wound and suck out the venom. This does not help! Conclusion Snakes are not cold-blooded killers (although they are cold blooded) like the movies p ortray them to be. They only attack in defense and when obtaining food. If you happen to be bitten by a venomous snake, seek immediate medical attention. There are 4 basic groups of venomous snakes: crotalines, viperids, elapids, and colubrids. This information given in the report can possibly save yours, or somebody else’s life in a given situation. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Snake Venom" essay for you Create order